Aligning Values
Gregory Rutbell
23 November 2013
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University - Worldwide
Campus
Organizations are formed through the
process of communication. As organizations meet and interact, they develop a
shared meaning for events. As organizational meet and interact, they develop a
shared meaning for events. Communication is not contained within the
organization. Instead, communication is the organization. (Hackman and Johnson,
2013) In
recent years communication scholars and others have borrowed the idea of
culture from the field of anthropology to describe how organizations create shared
meanings. From a cultural perspective, the organization resembles a tribe. Over
time, the tribe develops its own language, hierarchy, ceremonies, customs and
beliefs. Because each organizational tribe shares different experiences and
meanings, each develops its own unique way of seeing the worls or culture.
Anyone who joins a new company, governmental agency, or nonprofit group quickly
recognizes unique differences in perspectives. New employees often undergo
culture shock as they move into an organization with a different language,
authority structure, and attitude toward work and people. Even long-term
members can feel out of place if they change positions within the same
organization. Each department or branch office may represent a distinct
subculture. (Hackman and Johnson, 2013) Edgar
Schein is a management scholar and consultant interested in the role of leaders
in the development and maintenance of organizational culture. His 1992 classic
book - Organizational Culture and Leadership - describes a model of dividing
organizational culture into three levels -
Level 1: Artifacts, Level 2: Espoused Values, and Level 3: Basic
Assumptions. The second level of Schein's model of culture is composed of
individual and group values. Values represent preferences or what
"ought" to happen. For example, an individual with a value for hard
work will probably spend long hours at the office. A manager who values
innovativeness will reward workers who come up with new and better ideas for
getting the job done. Thus, this level of culture represents a mosaic of
beliefs about how things ought to be done in an organization. Several
interesting points should be included about this second level of culture.
First, organizations do not have values, but individuals do. Not all values
will hold equal "weight" in an organization. Many scholars believe
that the values of the organizational founder or leader play a critical role in
shaping the organization's culture. For example, the organizational culture of
the White House shifts when there is a new presidential administration. A
second point about the value level of culture is that sometimes individuals say
they hold a particular value, but their behavior belies that statement. Thus,
Schein labels this second level of culture "espoused values,"
emphasizing that stated value and behavior don't always match. For example, a
manager might say that she values the contributions of employees in
decision-making. However, that same manager might consistently make decisions without
seeking employee input. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013) Values are recognized
and acknowledged by organization members. Values reflect what the organization
"ought" to do. They serve as a yardstick for judging behavior. One
way to identify important values is by examining credos, vision and mission
statements, and advertising slogans. words like "concern,"
"quality," and "corporate responsibility" articulate the
official goals and standards of the organization. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013)
A good way to determine
how an organization views itself and the world is by listening carefully to the
language that organizational members use. Word choices reflect and reinforce
working relationships and values. The selection of the word "we" is
revealing. It reflects a willingness to share power and credit and to work with
others. The choice of terms to describe followers also provides important
insights into organizational life. For example, using the term
"associates" rather than "employees" suggests that all
organizational participants are important members of the team. Workers at
Disney theme parks are called "cast members" to emphasize that they
have significant roles to play in the overall performance for visitors who are,
in turn, called "guests." Language is a powerful motivator that
focuses attention on some aspects of experience and directs it away from
others. Those who speak of innovation or quality workmanship ("BMW - The
Ultimate Driving Machine") are generally more likely to provide creative and
well-crafted products. In addition, a common language binds group members
together. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013) Organizational stories carry
multiple messages. They reflect important values, inspire, describe what
members should do, and provide a means to vent emotions. In many cases,
organizational members are more likely to believe the stories they hear from
coworkers than the statistics they hear from management. For example, workers
at Intel tell the story of a manager who was fired after receiving an average
performance evaluation. She was dismissed because "there are no average
employees at Intel." This story makes it clear that the company has high
expectations of its members. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013) Rituals,
rites and routines involve repeated patterns of behavior: saying
"hello" in the morning to everyone on the floor; an annual staff
retreat; or disciplinary procedures. Common rites include: 1. Rites of
passage - these events mark important changes in roles and statuses. 2. Rites of degradation - some
rituals are used to lower the status of organizational members,
such as when a coach or top executive is fired. 3.
Rites of enhancement - raise the standing of organizational members. 4. Rites of renewal -
strengthen the current system. 5.
Rites of conflict reduction - organizations routinely use collective bargaining
task forces, and committees to
resolve conflicts. 6.
Rites of integration - tie subgroups to the large system. 7.
Rites of creation - celebrate and encourage change, helping organizations
remain flexible in turbulent
environments marked by rapid shifts in markets and technology. 8.
Rites of transition - meetings, speeches, and other strategies can help
organizational members accept
changes that they didn't plan, as in the case of an unexpected merger. 9. Rites of parting -
when organizations die, parting ceremonies (e.g., meals etc) are common. (Hackman
& Johnson, 2013) Leaders concern themselves with much more than organizational
charts, information management systems, and all the other traditional subjects
of management training. The pay close attention to the assumptions, values and
symbols that create and reflect organizational culture. Organizational
psychologist highlights the significant role that leaders play in the creation
of organizational culture: "Neither culture or leadership, when one
examines each closely, can really be understood by itself. In fact, one could
argue that the only thing of real importance that leaders do is to create and
manage culture and that the unique talent of leaders is their ability to
understand and work with culture." Schein notes that the responsibilities
of symbolic leaders shift as the organization matures. The founder/owner, in
addition to determining the group's purpose, imparting values, and recruiting
followers, provides stability and reduces the anxiety people feel when an
organization is just starting out. A new organization often struggles with
meeting its payroll, developing a market niche, and managing growth. The seeds
of future problems are often sown during the organization's initial stage of
development. For example, the founder/leader might emphasize teamwork but
continue to make all major decisions. Other founders do not perform as
effectively as leaders once the organization has been firmly established.
Founders/leaders often lay the groundwork for future change by promoting people
who will share some, but not all, of their values. Once the organization
reaches mid-life and maturity, leaders (frequently someone other than the
founder) become change agents who intervene to challenge cultural assumptions,
reinforce key values, or create new symbols. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013) Your effectiveness as a leader will
depend in large part on how well you put your "stamp" on an
organization's culture or subcultures either as a founder or as a change agent.
Perhaps you want to introduce more productive values and practices or encourage
innovation as part of your vision or agenda. Cultural change, while necessary,
is far from easy. Some organizational consultants sell programs that promise to
modify organizational culture in quick and orderly fashion. Such claims, which
treat culture as yet another element housed in the organizational container,
are misleading. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013) Change
is difficult because cultures are organized around deeply rooted assumptions
and values that affect every aspect of organizational life. Current symbols and
goals provide organizational and individual stability, so any innovation can be
threatening. However, knowing how culture is embedded and transmitted can help
you guide the cultural creation and change process. According to Edgar Schein,
there are six primary and sin secondary mechanisms you can use to establish and
maintain culture. Primary mechanisms create the organization's
"climate" and are most important tools for shaping culture. Secondary
mechanisms serve a supporting role, reinforcing messages sent through the
primary mechanisms. Primary Mechanisms 1.
Attention - systematically and persistently emphasize those values that
undergird your organization's
philosophy or plan. 2. Reactions to critical incidents -
the way you respond to stressful events sends important
messages about underlying organizational assumptions. 3. Resource
allocation - how an organization spends its money is a key indicator of where it is headed. 4.
Role modeling - effective leaders work to develop others who share their
vision. Become a coach and teacher to
followers, particularly to those who are directly underneath you on the organization ladder. You can also instill
organizational philosophy through
formal training programs. Hewlett-Packard estimates that one-third of its
initial training session is
devoted to discussing the "Hewlett-Packard Way." Employee evaluation is partially based on how well
workers adhere to the HP philosophy. 5.
Rewards - rewards, recognition and punishments (corrective action) based on individual and team performance. 6.
Selection - since organizations tend to perpetuate existing values and
assumptions by hiring people who
fit into the current system, reform the culture by recruiting members who share your new perspective
rather than the old one. Promote those who support your vision; if necessary, help those who won't or can't change find
employment at another organization.
(Hackman
& Johnson, 2013) Secondary Mechanisms 1.
Structure - organizational design and structure affect how leaders divide up
such things as product lines, markets,
and work responsibilities. Some structures emphasize the interdependence of organizational
units, for example, while others encourage each department or branch to operate as independently as
possible. 2.
Systems and procedures - quarterly reports, monthly meetings, work routines,
and other recurring tasks occupy
much of our time in organizations. You can use these organizational routines to reinforce the message that you care
about certain activities. 3. Rites and rituals - to encourage
change, nonessential rituals (those with little meaning for participants) can be dropped, essential rituals can be adapted
to new purposes, and new rituals
can be created. Rites of passage and enhancement are the best ways to encourage change. 4.
Physical space - the physical layout of your organization's facilities can
transmit your values, but only if you
pay close attention to the messages you send through these elements. 5.
Stories - consider creating new stories and changing old ones. 6.
Formal statements - credos and mission statements reflect important values. Such
statements can help you and your
constituents clarify your thinking. If members understand
the philosophy of the organization and have a statement of its goals, they can quickly make decisions about what actions will
help their company or nonprofit group. According
to Mahatma Gandhi, "We must be the change we wish to see in the
world." (Hackman &
Johnson, 2013) James Rest
and his colleagues at the Center for the Study of Ethical Development at the
University of Minnesota believe that ethical behavior is the product of four
intrapersonal and interpersonal communication processes. Ethical failure occurs
when one of these processes malfunctions. By understanding these components, we
can improve our performance and help our followers do the same.
Component
1: Moral Sensitivity (Recognition) Moral
sensitivity is identifying the existence of ethical problems. We can't solve a
moral problem unless we first recognize that one exists. This component
involves acknowledging that our behavior impacts others, identifying possible
course of action, and determining the consequences of each possible strategy.
Empathy and perspective-taking skills are essential if we are to predict the
possible consequences of our actions and to evaluate the effectiveness of
various options. We need to imagine how others might feel or react. However, we
can be victimized by moral tunnel vision when our mental scripts don't include
ethical considerations. Moral muteness is also a problem. All too often leaders
are reluctant to use ethical terminology when describing situations, perhaps
because they want to avoid conflict or believe that their silence will make
them appear in control. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013) Component
2: Moral Judgment Moral
judgment is deciding which course of action identified in the first component
is the right one to follow. Decision makers determine what is the right or
wrong thing to do in this particular situation. Moral judgment is the most
studied component of Rest's model including studies of moral judgment using an
instrument called the Defining Issues Test in which respondents read moral
dilemmas and then rank a series of items that reveal what they take into
consideration when making ethical choices. According to Rest, the highest form
of ethical reasoning is based on broad principles like justice, cooperation,
and respect for others. Results from the Defining Issues Test indicate that we
can increase our ethical competence. There is a strong link between higher
education and reasoned decision making. People in college and graduate school
demonstrate the greatest gains in moral development. However, insecurities,
greed, and ego can subvert the reasoning process, contributing to the downfall
of such prominent leaders including Martha Stewart, John Edwards and former
House majority leader Tom DeLay. Base your decisions on widely accepted ethical
principles. Be alert to the possibility of faulty reasoning - consult with
others to check your perceptions against reality and stay close to people who
will tell you the truth and hold you accountable. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013)
Component 3: Moral Motivation Moral
motivation refers to following through on choices. The desire to do the right
thing generally comes in conflict with other values like security, wealth and
social acceptance. Ethical behavior results if moral values take precedence
over other considerations. Leaders and followers are more likely to follow
through when they are rewarded for doing so. Lockheed Martin, for example,
encourages ethical behavior by evaluating ethical performance as part of the
review process and by giving out an annual ethics award to senior-level
managers. Emotions, like rewards, also influence ethical motivation. In
general, positive feelings like happiness, jpy, and optimism encourage
individuals to follow through while negative emotions like anger, frustration,
stress, and depression lower motivation and instead encourage aggression and
other antisocial behaviors. You can increase your moral motivation and that of
your followers by creating an ethically rewarding environment and managing your
emotions. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013) Component 4: Moral Character Moral
character is the implementation of the model. Opposition, fatigue,
distractions, and other factors are formidable barriers to ethical action.
Overcoming these obstacles takes persistence. Those with a strong will are more
likely to persist as well as those with an internal locus of control.
Internally oriented people (internals) are convinced they have control over
their lives and can determine what happens to them. Externally oriented people
(externals) believe what happens in life is generally outside their control and is the product of such
forces as fate or luck. Internals are more likely to take personal
responsibility for their actions and therefore try to do what is right.
Externals are more likely to give in to situational pressures and to give up
rather than to carry on. Successful implementation requires competence as well
as persistence. (Hackman & Johnson, 2013) Creating an Ethical
Environment: Defensive and Proactive Strategies Defensive
Tactics 1.
Create zero-tolerance for antisocial behaviors 2.
Personally adhere to policies; model compliance 3.
Confront offenders at the first sign of trouble 4. Punish those who break the
rules 5. Address the root causes of
destructive behaviors: oppressive supervision, injustice, stress, unpleasant working conditions,
etc. 6.
Set-up reporting systems (e.g., ethics hotline) for ethical behaviors and
create disciplinary procedures 7.
Design performance evaluation systems that detect unethical behavior Proactive
Tactics 1. Create codes of ethics 2.
Appoint ethics officers 3.
Establish clear line of accountability 4.
Honor ethics heroes 5.
Model moral behavior 6.
Continually communicate the organization's core values and core purpose 7.
Incorporate values into every organization decision 8. Equip constituents to make their own moral
decisions; empower them to do so 9.
Build ethical criteria and standards into performance reviews 10.
Reward ethical behavior 11.
Evaluate based on processes 12.
Support, don't punish whistle-blowers 13.
Select employees based on their character and values 14.
Integrate discussion of ethics and values into socialization processes
(interviews and training) 15. Provide ongoing ethics training 16.
Periodically audit the ethical culture of the organization (Hackman
& Johnson, 2013) According
to Richard Santulli, "The heartbeat of a company is its culture, and you
can't allow that culture to change." And without it "we're out of
business." Culture is the heart of organizational leadership and drives
all other concepts and processes including: mission, vision, strategy, operating
and guiding principles, etc.(Santulli, 2007)
References
Denning, Stephen (2011). The Leader's Guide to Storytelling -
Mastering The Art and Discipline
of Business
Narrative. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).
Hackman, Michael Z. and Johnson, Craig E. (2013). Leadership:
A Communication Perspective
(6th ed.).
Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc. Santulli, Richard (2007). Brands Are
Built on Integrity & Attention To Detail (Books24/7). Retrieved
from
http://library.books24x7.com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/toc.aspx?bookid=38738.
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