Take
some time to reflect on the current state of your critical thinking
competencies. Consider your thinking processes when you started the course.
Have they changed at all? Have you been able to internalize any of the
techniques and concepts you have learned? What will it take to make lasting, positive
changes in the way you think? I will summarize what I have learned and applied
in my personal and professional life and will also identify what I need to
focus on to improve (gap analysis).
Critical thinking
includes three characteristics: reflection, judgment and improvement.
Reflection from self,
others and experience for example (education, family, personal life and
professional jobs) enhances the thinking process. According to Robert Ennis,
"Critical thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on
deciding what to believe or do." Examples of reflection include a diary,
journal, enjoying a cup of coffee at sunrise and sunset thinking about daily
goals and learning experiences from the day.
Judgment is important
to reach quality and the correct right decisions. According to Matthew Lipman,
"Critical thinking is skillful, responsible thinking that is conducive to
good judgment because it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is
self-correcting." I like this because good sound judgment is required for
professional and personal success.
Continuous
improvement, professional development and self-improvement are required to
build a better you. According to Richard Paul, "Critical thinking is
thinking about your thinking, while you're thinking, in order to make your
thinking better." If you are not getting better and improving, you will
not be successful on the job and in life.
Critical thinking is a meta-thinking
skill (Lau, 2011). It requires thinking about thinking. I have to reflect and
make a reasonable and conscious effort to learn them and apply them in my daily
life. This is hard to do because it requires passion, commitment and a long
period of training. Like anything else in life in order to improve my critical
thinking skills I have to think critically. Just like exercise or lack of such
as walking and swimming which improves the efficiency of all muscles in the
body; likewise not using those muscles causes them to deteriorate and becomes
less efficient. The mastery of critical thinking is similar to the mastery of
other skills such as sports, music, and engineering. The four areas and
components that I will focus on to improve my critical thinking skills are: 1.
Theory 2. Practice 3. Personal (including Attitude) 4. Mentoring.
Theory
Critical
thinking is important for us to function, interact with others and solve
problems in our lives. The basics of critical thinking and logic can be learned
in a classroom or from a book. I can improve my mental prowess and critical
thinking skills by regularly engaging my mind in reading books and formal and
structured classroom learning activities such as the MSLD at Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University. The benefits of reading are vast and incredible.
Reading improves memory by requiring the reader to remember plot, event,
setting, and character details. It improves creativity by requiring the reader
to imagine many of the details for his or herself. It also increases your
vocabulary and ability to focus. All of these things add up to making you into
a more efficient thinker so I have enrolled at ERAU in the MSLD and have a
library card. So yes dive in and do it. (Lau,
2011)
Practice
Just knowing the principles that distinguish good and bad reasoning is not enough. I might study in the classroom about how to swim, and learn about the basic theory, such as the fact that one should not breathe under water. But unless I can apply such theoretical knowledge through constant practice, I might not actually be able to swim.
Similarly, to be good at critical thinking skills it is necessary to internalize the theoretical principles so that I can actually apply them in daily life. There are at least two ways. One is to do lots of good-quality exercises. Exercises include not just exercises in classrooms and tutorials. They also include exercises in the form of discussion and debates with other people in our daily life. The other method is to think more deeply about the principles that we have acquired. In the human mind, memory and understanding are acquired through making connections between ideas.
I
can improve my mental prowess and critical thinking skills by regularly
engaging my mind in my Industrial Engineering profession at Boeing, in strategy
games, solving puzzles or difficult questions, and engaging in activities that
employ strategy. In my profession, I can engage in critical thinking activities
such as root cause analysis, value stream mapping, and process mapping.
Strategy games include involving two or more players like Chess. This way the
players must attempt to think like their opponent(s) through reaction and
adaptation in order to win. One of the most amazing feats of the human brain is
its capacity to create systems absorbing familiar types of information with
ease. Sudoku is a purely logical, systematic exercise for the brain. It causes
one to program their brain to recognize a massive array of possibilities with
the numbers 1-9 in a 9x9 little square -- this game can really flex your pure
cold intellect. Crossword solving shares many of the benefits that reading does
such as creativity, memory, and vocabulary. But it also causes the solver to
think in a connective way forcing him or her to pave neurological in their
brain that may not have existed prior to then. The result is a more efficient
brain and improved critical thinking capacity. (Lau,
2011)
Personal
Personal
includes attitude, diet, health, and well being. Good critical thinking skills
require not just knowledge and practice. Persistent practice can bring about
improvements only if one has the right kind of passion, drive, motivation and
attitude. What is attitude? It is me! And it is a Yes attitude! How I feel when
I wake up in the morning, when I look in the mirror, during the day, how I feel
about my life, job and company. To improve my thinking I must recognize that
the importance of reflecting on the reasons for belief and action. I must also
be willing to engage in debate, to make mistakes, to break old habits
(paradigms), and to deal with linguistic complexities and abstract concepts.
Diet and exercise are important because they feed the body and mind. (Lau,
2011)
I
can also learn and apply the "9 Strategies" (The Critical Thinking
Community) including:
1.
Use "Wasted" Time
2.
A Problem A Day
3.
Internalize Intellectual Standards
4.
Keep An Intellectual Journal
5.
Reshape My Character
6.
Deal with My Egocentrism
7.
Redefine the Way I See Things
8.
Get in touch with my emotions
9.
Analyze group influences on my life
(The
Critical Thinking Community)
Mentoring
A
mentor can be my coach and guide and we can share lifelong learning and
personal experiences including what worked, what didn't, things my mentor
and I would do differently and a
recommended action plan and strategy. What are the lessons learned from my
mentor and myself? How can I apply this to improve my critical thinking? This
includes relationship building with a bond of friendship, trust and
understanding.
How do I define
critical thinking? Critical thinking is a skill and process of deciding whether
an assertion is true, false or partially true or false.
In my current thinking, what is most
important to me? What is most important to my manager and company? I am
currently an Industrial Engineer at Boeing Commercial Airplanes 737 Program in
Seattle, Washington. I have two important goals and objectives in my position,
roles and responsibilities: 1. provide value to my company 2. servant
leadership and help others. I was hired and am paid for my knowledge, skills,
abilities, creativity and innovation to enhance the 737 Program Final Assembly
to develop, implement and improve systems, processes, methods and improvements.
The business result of this is to build the world's most advanced
manufacturing, assembly and production system. The 737 Program is regarded in
the aerospace industry as the world's most advanced and incredible assembly
line. I am also a servant leader and help others at work regardless of title
and position. My philosophy of life (and business) is that we are here to serve
others. Servant leadership is both a leadership philosophy and set of leadership
practices. According to Robert Greenleaf in "The Servant Leader"
"The servant-leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling
that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to
aspire to lead" (Greenleaf, 2002). Robert Greenleaf recognized that
organizations as well as individuals could be servant-leaders. Indeed, he had
great faith that servant-leader organizations could change the world. This is
my thesis: I help everyone at work who asks for my help and assistance
regardless of title and position. (Greenleaf, 2002)
"There is no one ‘correct' way;
you must decide what is right for you, and develop your own views. To do that,
however, you need to do some action research; the 'meaning' it has for you
emerges as you do the research and explain what you are doing and why you are
doing it (McNiff, 2002)."
As I was reading and reflecting
through Jean McNiff Action research document, one name and standard problem
solving and improvement process (and very successful process too) that I have
been using for my career came to mind: W. Edward Deming was an American
statistician, professor, author, lecturer and consultant and was known as the
"high prophet and father of quality" (Orsini, 2013). Dr. Deming's
plan-do-study-act (PDSA) Cycle is a flow diagram for learning and life. The
first step is plan: ideas are in people's heads about improvement or
innovation, new method or new process. Those ideas go down on paper and become
plans. Ideas lead to a plan or test. Comparison and experiment. Step two: do it
carry out the test or experiment on a small scale. Step three: study the
results. How do they compare with goals and expectations? If something went
wrong does something need to change? Step four: Act. Adopt a change or abandon
it or run through the cycle again possibly under different conditions and maybe
make some changes and adjustments. (Orsini, 2013).
The main components for action
research (no matter which process you use) are: continuous improvement, ideas,
reflection, experimentation, results and lifelong learning and most importantly
great groups and teams with facilitation. I have had a great and successful
career from integrating these.
According to Toastmasters
International, intellectual perseverance is defined as "the disposition to
work one's way through intellectual complexities despite the frustration
inherent in the task. Some intellectual problems are complex and cannot be
easily solved. One has intellectual perseverance when one does not give up in
the face of intellectual complexity or frustration. The intellectually
perseverant person displays firm adherence to rational principles despite the
irrational opposition of others, and has a realistic sense of the need to
struggle with confusion and unsettled questions over an extended time to
achieve understanding or insight". The opposite of intellectual
perseverance is intellectual laziness which is defined as "the tendency to
give up quickly when faced with an intellectually challenging task".
Physical perseverance (the human body) is different from intellectual
perseverance (the mind thinking process). For example, sports emphasize
"no pain, no gain" when using physical perseverance. (Intellectual
Perseverance: Working Through Complexity and Frustration).
Intellectual Humility
Intellectual humility is awareness
of the limits of my knowledge including egocentrism which is likely to function
self-deceptively. This includes awareness of biases, prejudices, limitations of
viewpoint, and ignorance. This does not imply weakness or submissiveness. Not
having an awareness of this is intellectual arrogance and people who are often
fall victim to their own bias and prejudice and claim to know more than they
actually know. Intellectual humility will help be a fair-minded thinker along
with knowledge of my ignorance can improve my thinking in several ways by
recognizing prejudices, false beliefs and habits of mind that lead to flawed
learning.
Intellectual Courage
Intellectual courage is having an
awareness of the need to face and fairly address ideas, beliefs and viewpoints
which I have strong negative emotions and to which I have not given a fair
hearing. For example, consider the following ideas: being conservative,
believing in God, believing in capitalism, disbelieving in abortion, believing
in capital punishment, I am a Christian, etc. No matter what side I am on, I
often say, I am a "insert belief." I define who I am in relation to
an emotional commitment to a belief and will likely experience inner fear when
that idea or belief is questioned. I need intellectual courage to overcome
self-created inner fear (linking my identity to a specific set of beliefs and
overcome the fear of rejection by others because they hold certain beliefs and
are likely to reject me if I challenge those beliefs.
Intellectual Empathy
Intellectual empathy is awareness of
the need to put yourself in the place of
others including their ideas, viewpoints and reasoning in order to understand
them and reason from ideas other than my
own. How can I be fair to the thinking of others if I have not learned to put
myself in their intellectual position? Different contexts and situations are
needed to learn and understand.
Intellectual Integrity
Intellectual integrity (also known
as character) is the recognition of the need to be true to your own thinking
and to hold yourself accountable to the same standards one expects others to
accomplish. When I have intellectual integrity, my beliefs and actions are
consistent. We practice what we preach, for example. We don't say one thing and
do another. I cannot be fair to others if I am justified in thinking and acting
in contradictory ways. The opposite of
intellectual integrity is intellectual hypocrisy. Hypocrisy is a form of
injustice. All humans sometimes fail to act with intellectual integrity. When
we do, we reveal a lack of fair-mindedness on our part.
Faith In Reason
Faith in reason is based on the belief of giving the freest play to reason. Reason encourages people to come to their own conclusions, analysis and recommendations. It is the faith that with proper coaching and mentoring, people can think for themselves and develop viewpoints, draw conclusions, and develop clear, accurate, relevant and logical thought processes. They can persuade others by using reason with evidence. In the place of faith in reason, people can have uncritical or "blind" faith including: 1. faith in charismatic leaders (Hitler for example who manipulated and excited Germany to support genocide of an entire religious group), 2. faith in institutional authorities (employers, police, judges, priests, evangelical preachers, etc), 3. faith in some social group (business community, church, political party, etc), etc..
Fairmindedness
To be fair-minded is to treat every assertion applicable for a situation with an open mind and attitude in an unbiased and unprejudiced way. We usually prejudge the views of others and put them in either agrees or disagrees categories. Being aware of the importance and need to treat all viewpoints alike without reference to one's own feelings or vested interests of friends, community, company, groups etc is the first step to fairmindedness.
Standards of Critical Thinking:
Clearness
Clarity or clearness is the gateway standard because if a
statement is unclear and vague, we cannot determine if it is accurate and
relevant. In addition, we cannot say anything about it because we don't know
what it is saying. For example, the question "What's wrong with the
education system in America?" is unclear and vague. A better question
would be "What can educators do to ensure that students learn the skills
and abilities which help them function successfully on the job and in their
daily decision-making?" This statement is clear and understandable.
Accuracy
Is this true? How can we find out it if this is true? There
is a saying about computers: "Garbage in, garbage out." Simply
stated, this means that if you put bad information into a computer, bad
information will is what you will get out of it. The same applies to human
thinking. No matter how intelligent and brilliant you are, you will make bad
decisions if your decisions are based on false information. Critical thinkers
don't only value the truth; they have a passion for accurate data and
information. In the spirit of Socrates' famous statement that the unexamined
life is not worth living, they never stop learning, growing and inquiring.
Importance, Relevance
How is this connected to the issue? A statement can be
clear, accurate, and precise, but not relevant to the question at issue. For
example, students usually think that the amount of time they put into a course
should be used to improve their grade in the course. Unfortunately, this is not
always the case because the "effort" does not measure the quality of
student learning and when this is applicable effort is irrelevant to their
appropriate grade.
Sufficiency
Has the issue been reasoned out sufficiently? Have I
reasoned the issue out enough to decide the issue reasonably? Critical thinking
about an issue is sufficient when it has been reasoned out thoroughly enough
for the purpose at hand, when it is adequate for what is needed and when
account of all necessary factors is complete.
Depth
Are you taking into account the complexities and problems in
the question? A statement can be clear, accurate, precise, and relevant, but
superficial (lacking depth). For example, the statement "Just say no"
which is often used to discourage children and teenagers from using drugs, is
clear, accurate, precise and relevant. However, it lacks depth because it
treats a very complex issue, the pervasive problem of drug use among young
people, superficially. It does not deal with the complexities of the issue.
Breadth
Do we need to consider another point of view? Is there
another way to look at this issue? A line of reasoning may be clear, accurate,
precise, relevant, and deep, but lack breadth (only recognizes the insights of
one side of the issue).
Precision
Everyone recognizes the importance of precision in
specialized fields including: medicine, mathematics, architecture, and
engineering. Critical thinkers also understand the importance of precise
thinking in daily life. They understand that to cut through the confusions and
uncertainties that surround many everyday problems and issues, it is necessary
to insist on precise answers to precise questions: What exactly is the problem?
What are the alternatives? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each
alternative? Only when we seek such precision are we critical thinkers.
Logic
Does this really make sense? when we think, we bring a
variety of thoughts together into some order. When the combination of thoughts
are mutually supporting and make sense in combination, the thinking is
"logical." When the combination is not mutually supporting, is
contradictory in some sense or does not "make sense," the combination
is not logical.
Fairness
Do I have a vested interest in this issue? Am I
sympathetically representing the viewpoints of others? Human thinking is often
biased in the direction of the thinker - in what are the perceived interests of
the thinker. Humans do not naturally consider the rights and needs of others on
the same level with their own rights and needs. We therefore must actively work
to make sure we are applying the intellectual standard of fairness to our
thinking especially since we naturally see ourselves as fair even when we are
unfair, this can be very difficult.
On
the Internet, "anything goes" that is "anyone" can post
"anything" at "any time" for any reason" they want on
a Web site with no review, approval or screening process including no standard
process of identifying subjects and cross-references. This is both a strength
and weakness of the Internet because it is either freedom or chaos depending on
the point of view and shows the importance to pay close attention when doing
research on-line. There are many solid academic resources available on the Net
including journals and sites from universities and scholarly, scientific,
business and research organizations. The Hunt Library includes one such
academic resource. Using materials from those sources is not a problem. It is
similar to going to the Library except it's on-line. It's the other stuff on
the Internet I need to be cautious about and need to use several guidelines and
critical-thinking standards:
1. Don't use only Net resources. Use a combination of both Internet and Hunt Library
resources. Cross reference information from the Net against information from
the Library and is a good way to ensure the Net material is reliable and
authoritative. Using a combination of both Internet and Library resources adds
to the quality and diversity of research. It can also identify additional ideas
and input that were not originally identified at the start.
2. Know the subject directories and search engines. There are several quality peer reviewed subject directories
with links selected by subject experts including INFOMINE and Academic Info.
These are outstanding places to start Internet research. Yahoo and Google and
other search engines differ in how they work, how much of the Net they search
and the kind of results they produce. Spending some time learning each search
engine and how best to use it can help in research. Each search engine will
find different things, it's a good idea to use more than one search engine.
3. Authority.
There are several questions to ask to ask and verify about the author and
authority. Who is the author? Is the author's name and qualifications given?
Has the author written additional topics and subject matter areas?
4. Affiliation.
There are several questions to ask about affiliation. Who or what organization
is the sponsor of the Web site? Is the author affiliated with a reputable
organization such as business, industry, university, government, non-profit,
etc.? Does the information reflect the views of the organization or only the
author?
5. Audience. There are several
questions to ask and verify about audience. Who is the intended audience? What
is the audience level the Web site is designed for? For example, don't use
sites intended for high school students or sites that are too advanced and
technical for the intended application.
6. Currency. There are several
questions to ask and verify about currency. Is the Web site current and dated?
Are the dates of the most recent updates given? Internet resources should be up
to date because getting the most recent information is the reason for using the
Internet for research. Are all links and updated and operational?
7. Content
Reliability.
There are several questions to ask and verify about reliability. Is the
material on the Internet reliable and accurate? Is the information fact and not
opinion? Is the information clearly stated? Is the research valid? Does the
material have substance and depth? Is the author's language free from emotion
and bias? Is the site free of grammatical and spelling errors? Are additional
resources identified to complement or support the material on the Web site?
(MacDonald, Research Using the Internet)
There
are additional critical-thinking standards:
1. Accuracy. Is this true? How can we find out it if this is true? There
is a saying about computers: "Garbage in, garbage out." Simply
stated, this means that if you put bad information into a computer, bad
information will is what you will get out of it. The same applies to human
thinking. No matter how intelligent and brilliant you are, you will make bad
decisions if your decisions are based on false information. Critical thinkers
don't only value the truth; they have a passion for accurate data and
information. In the spirit of Socrates' famous statement that the unexamined
life is not worth living, they never stop learning, growing and inquiring.
2. Precision. Everyone recognizes the importance of precision in
specialized fields including: medicine, mathematics, architecture, and
engineering. Critical thinkers also understand the importance of precise
thinking in daily life. They understand that to cut through the confusions and
uncertainties that surround many everyday problems and issues, it is necessary
to insist on precise answers to precise questions: What exactly is the problem?
What are the alternatives? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each
alternative? Only when we seek such precision are we critical thinkers.
3. Logic. Does this really make sense? When we think, we bring a
variety of thoughts together into some order. When the combination of thoughts
are mutually supporting and make sense in combination, the thinking is
"logical." When the combination is not mutually supporting, is
contradictory in some sense or does not "make sense," the combination
is not logical.
The foundation and pillars of Total Quality Management (TQM) and continuous improvement go back to a former Bell Telephone employee named Walter Shewhart. Dr Shewhart was an American physicist, engineer, and statistician and was sometimes known as the father of statistical quality control and the Shewhart cycle. He believed that lack of information greatly hampered the efforts of control and management processes in a production environment. One of W. Edwards Deming's teachers, he preached the importance of creating scientific and efficient and management processes to create profitable business cases for both businesses and consumers economical decisions, promoting the utilization of his own creation - the SPC control chart and the Shewhart Cycle Learning and Improvement Cycle: Plan, Do, Check and Act (Figure 1). W. Edwards Deming said of him "As a statistician, he was like so many of the rest of us, self-taught, on a good background of physics and mathematics (Orsini, 2013)." (Orsini, 2013).
W. Edwards Deming was an American statistician, professor, author, lecturer and consultant and was known as the "high prophet and father of quality" (Orsini, 2013). Dr. Deming's plan-do-study-act (PDSA) Cycle (Figure 2) is a flow diagram for learning and life. The first step is plan: ideas are in people's heads about improvement or innovation, new method or new process. Those ideas go down on paper and become plans. Ideas lead to a plan or test. Comparison and experiment. Step two: do it carry out the test or experiment on a small scale. Step three: study the results. How do they compare with goals and expectations? If something went wrong does something need to change? Step four: Act. Adopt a change or abandon it or run through the cycle again possibly under different conditions and maybe make some changes and adjustments. (Orsini, 2013).
What
is my definition of a system of thinking? Systems thinking is the process of
understanding how things, also known as systems, work together, integrate with
each other and influence each other within a whole. For example, take a car and
truck. What are the systems? There is the engine, drive/power train system
including transmission with drive shaft and axles, fuel system, heater and air
conditioning system, suspension system with shock absorbers and springs, brake
system, battery with electrical charging system and power steering system.
These systems work together, are integrated and influence (usually with
computer control) each other and enable us to drive. If a problem or issue
surfaces or lack of preventive maintenance, what happens? The "Check
Engine" emergency light goes on illuminating a red, yellow or orange color
sometimes with an audio alarm or beeper. In organizations, systems include
people, structures and processes that are integrated and work together to make
the organization successful (or unsuccessful).
A general impression
is that a field consists essentially of a body of information. For example, in
my profession of an Industrial Engineer, the body of knowledge or information
(Field or Discipline) includes: time and motion studies, work measurement
analysis, process and methods improvements, root cause analysis, operating
plans, project management, safety and lean manufacturing. I do not simply process
information. I know how to use the concepts and synthesize information
including practical hand on application. I know how to think about the
Industrial Engineering field and how to think within the field.
Everyone has
experienced learning parts of a subject, but with no idea how the parts are
integrated and fit together. Understanding a whole is not the same as
understanding the parts. It is understanding parts as they fit together with
one another and form a coherent whole: a logic. In my Industrial Engineering
example, the systems approach of integrating all the parts I identified is an
effective and efficient production system for the Boeing 737 Program. A
production system includes the process of how we build the airplane (tooling,
personnel, engineering, etc). An analysis of this would include going through
the (8) Elements of Thought with Intellectual Standards.
Warren Bennis - Concepts
Bennis
on Understanding the Basics:
According
to Bennis (1989), the basic ingredients of leadership are having a guiding
vision, passion, self-knowledge, candor, maturity, trust, curiosity, and
daring. Bennis goes on to say that these are ingredients for becoming a leader
and not traits, hence, we are not born with them but must develop them over
years.
Bennis
on Knowing Yourself:
In
knowing yourself, Bennis (1989) outlines four lessons aimed at leaders. He
tells us that we should be our own best teacher, we should accept
responsibility, we can learn anything we want, and that true understanding
comes from reflecting on our own experiences. Bennis (1989) mentions that we
should really know ourselves and what we are capable of before we can lead
others. In other words, knowing yourself gives you confidence to lead people.
Bennis
on Knowing the World:
According
to Bennis (1989), to become a leader we must know our world as well as we know
ourselves. We know our world through learning. We do this learning through our
experiences, our reading, our formalized instruction, our travels, our mentors
and our own mistakes. But it's not just learning, it's about having a passion
for learning; it's about losing yourself in the reading, education, travel,
friends, and reflections.
Bennis
on Operating on Instinct:
A
leader is a person that knows himself, knows his world and relies on everything
he’s learned to set a guiding vision. A leader uses prior knowledge to make
difficult decisions based on “gut” feelings. Bennis (1989) calls this visions
“inner voices,” which leaders learn to trust when making decisions based on
limited data or information.
Bennis
on Forging the Future:
According
to Bennis (1989), leaders forge the future by managing the dream, embracing
error, encouraging reflective backtalk and dissent, possessing optimism,
providing hope and faith, develop understanding, possessing the touch, seeing
the long view, understanding stakeholders, and creating strategic alliances.
It's not as easy as it seems. Leaders must be able to manage internal and
external change while leading the organization to a shared future.
Warren Bennis - Conclusions/Interpretations
Bennis
(1989) theory can be summed up into one sentence. A great leader must first
know himself and his world, then and only then can they lead through a shared
set of values and objectives with the passion and determination of turning the
shared vision into a reality. In his 1989 book titled On Becoming a Leader, Warren
Bennis outlined the principles and implementation plan for becoming a leader.
He sums up his book with three top recommendations for leaders. They include
the status quo is unacceptable, recruiting and retaining smart people leads to
competitive advantage, and followers need direction, trust and hope (Bennis,
1989).
References
Bennis, Warren
(1989). On Becoming a Leader. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books Group.
Critical
Thinking in Everyday Life: 9 Strategies (The Critical Thinking Community).
Retrieved
from
http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/critical-thinking-in-everyday-life-9-strategies/512
Green,
Penelope. (2010, March 17). An Expert on Choice Chooses. New York Times. Retrieved
from
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/18/garden/18choice.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
Greenleaf, Robert
K. (2002). Servant Leadership - A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power & Greatness. Mahwah, New
Jersey: Paulist Press.
Intellectual Perseverance: Working Through Complexity and
Frustration. Toastmasters International.
Retrieved from http://westsidetoastmasters.com/resources/thinking_tools/ch03lev1sec7.html.
Lau, Joe (2011).
An Introduction to Critical Thinking and Creativity - Think More, Think Better (1st ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley, John
& Sons.
MacDonald, W.
Brock. Research Using the Internet (University of
Toronto). Retrieved from http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/reading-and-researching/research-using-internet.
McNiff, Jean.
(2002). Action research for professional development: Concise advice for
new action researchers (3rd ed.).
Retrieved from jeanmcniff.com: http://www.jeanmcniff.com/ar-booklet.asp
Nosich, Gerald M.
(2012). Learning To Think Things Through - A Guide To Critical
Thinking Across The Curriculum (4th
ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Orsini, Joyce
Nilsson (2013 - The W. Edwards Deming Institute). The Essential Deming:
Leadership
Principles from the Father of Quality. New York: McGraw
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