A500.7.3.RB_RutbellGreg - Blog - Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research Summary    

 

Gregory Rutbell           

 

25 September 2013         

 

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University - Worldwide Campus       

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Quantitative research attempts precise measurement of something. In business research, quantitative methodologies usually measure consumer behavior, knowledge, opinions, or attitudes. Such methodologies answer questions related to how much, how often, how many, when, and who. Although the survey is not the only methodology of the quantitative researcher, it is considered a dominant one. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

Besides the purpose of the research, this process sets up several key distinctions between qualitative and quantitative research, elaborated in Exhibit 1, including the level of researcher involvement; sampling methodology and size; data collection processes; including participant preparation and researcher and research sponsor involvement; data type and preparation; data analysis and timing; processes for reaching insights and meaning; time frame of insight discovery; and the level of data security. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

In the case of quantitative data, both the researcher and research sponsor have less significant involvement in collecting and interpreting data compared to qualitative analysis. With large quantitative studies, the researcher who interprets the data and draws conclusions from it is rarely the data collector and often has no contact at all with the participant. In quantitative research, identical data are desired from all participants, so evolution of methodology is not acceptable. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

Quantitative data often consist of participant responses that are coded, categorized, and reduced to numbers so that these data may be manipulated for statistical analysis. One objective is the quantitative tally of events or opinions, called the frequency of responses. Qualitative data are all about texts. Detailed descriptions of events, situations, and interactions, either verbal or visual, constitute the data. Data may be contained within transcriptions of interviews or video focus groups, as well as in notes taken during those interactions.  But by definition they generate reams of words that need to be coded and analyzed by humans for meaning. While computer software is increasingly used for the coding process in qualitative research, at the heart of qualitative research is the researcher - and his or her experience - framing and interpreting the data. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

Multimillion-dollar strategies may lose their power if the competitor acts too quickly. Data security is therefore of increasing concern. Both group and individual interviewing, the mainstay techniques of qualitative research, can be conducted in highly secure environments. In comparison, once a quantitative survey or field observation or experiment is started, it is quickly common knowledge among a research sponsor's competitors. Although the data might not be known, the area of inquiry often can be determined. For example, in a test market - an experimental quantitative design - a research sponsor 's competitors can often observe and extract insights right along with the sponsor. In quantitative research, unless a researcher is collecting his or her own data, interviewers or data collectors are rarely involved in the data interpretation or analysis stages. Although data collectors contribute to the accuracy of data preparation, their input is rarely, if ever, sought in the development of data interpretations. While qualitative research is being used to increasingly because of the methodologies' ability to generate deeper understanding, it is still perceived by many senior-level executives as a stepchild of quantitative data collection. This is primarily due to qualitative research's use of nonprobability sampling, the smaller sample sizes involved, and the nonprojectability of the results to a broader, target population. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

Triangulation is the term used to describe the combining of several qualitative methods or combining qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative studies may be combined with quantitative studies to increase the perceived quality of the research, especially when a quantitative study follows a qualitative one and provides validation for the qualitative findings. Four strategies for combining methodologies are common in business research:

 

1.      Qualitative and quantitative research can be conducted simultaneously.

 

2.      A qualitative study can be ongoing while multiple waves of quantitative studies are done, measuring changes in behavior and attitudes over time.

 

3.      A qualitative study can precede a quantitative study, and a second qualitative study might then follow the quantitative study, seeking more clarification.

 

4.      A quantitative study can precede a qualitative study.  

 

Many researchers recognize that qualitative research compensates for the weaknesses of quantitative research and vice versa. These forward thinkers believe that the methodologies complement rather than rival each other. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Exhibit 1 (Cooper & Schindler, 2014, p. 147)

	Qualitative	Quantitative
Focus of Research	·   Understand and interpret	·   Describe, explain, and predict
Researcher Involvement	·   High - researcher is participant or catalyst	·   Limited; controlled to prevent bias
Research Purpose	·   In-depth understanding; theory building	·   Describe or predict; build and test theory
Sample Design	·   Nonprobability; purposive	·   Probability
Sample Size	·   Small	·   Large
Research Design	·   May evolve or adjust during the course of the project ·   Often uses multiple methods simultaneously or sequentially ·   Consistency is not expected ·   Involves longitudinal approach	·   Determined before commencing the project ·   Uses single method or mixed methods ·   Consistency is critical ·   Involves either a cross-sectional or longitudinal approach
Participant Preparation	·   Pretasking is common	·   No preparation desired to avoid biasing the participant
Data Type and Preparation	·   Verbal or pictorial descriptions ·   Reduced to verbal codes (sometimes with computer assistance)	·   Verbal descriptions ·   Reduced to numerical codes for computerized analysis
Data Analysis	·   Human analysis following computer or human coding; primarily nonquantitative ·   Forces researcher to see the contextual framework of the phenomenon being measured - distinction between facts and judgments less clear	·   Computerized analysis - statistical and mathematical methods dominate ·   Analysis may be ongoing during the project ·   Maintains clear distinction between facts and judgments
Insights and Meaning	·   Deeper level of understanding is the norm; determined by type and quantity of free-response questions ·   Researcher participation in data collection allows insights to form and to be tested during the process	·   Limited by the opportunity to probe respondents and the quality of the original data collection instrument ·   Insights follow data collection and data entry, with limited ability to reinterview participants
Research Sponsor Involvement	·   May participate by observing research in real time or via taped interviews	·   Rarely has either direct or indirect contact with participant
Feedback Turnaround	·   Smaller sample sizes make data collection faster for shorter possible turnaround ·   Insights are developed as the research progresses, shortening data analysis	·   Larger sample sizes lengthen data collection; Internet methodologies are shortening turnaround but inappropriate for many studies   ·   Insight development follows data collection and entry, lengthening research process; interviewing software permits some tallying of responses as data collection progresses
Data Security	·   More absolute given use of restricted access facilities and smaller sample sizes	·   Act of research in progress is often known by competitors; insights may be gleaned by competitors for some visible, field-based studies

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

 

Cooper, Donald R. & Schindler, Pamela S. (2014) Business Research Methods (12th ed). New     York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

A500.6.3.RB_RutbellGreg - Blog - Qualitative Research

Managers basically do business research to understand how and why things happen. If the manager needs to know only what happened, or how often things happened, quantitative research methodologies would serve the purpose. But to understand  the different meanings that people place on their experiences often requires research techniques that delve more deeply into people's hidden interpretations, understandings, and motivations. Qualitative research is designed to tell the researcher how (process) and why (meaning) things happen as they do. While quantitative research currently accounts for about 20% of research expenditures by businesses, that is set to change. With technology helping to rapidly expand the insights drawn from social media analysis (netnography), ethnography, crowdsourcing (tasking an undefined public with a problem or task), marketing research online communities (MROCs), and virtual groups, the use of qualitative research by business is projected to explode. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

Nonexperimental research is defined by exclusion: research that is not experimental. This requires us to define experimental. The distinction between experimental research and nonexperimental research is based on the degree of control that the researcher has over the subjects and the conditions of the research. Key words here are manipulation and assignment versus observation. Manipulation: in an experiment, conditions or variables assigned or presented to a participant. Assignment: in an experiment, pairing a subject with a condition or variable, according to the experimenter's plan. Observation: the record of a behavior. One characteristic of some nonexperimental research, called qualitative research, concerns the questions that are typically asked by the research. The questions that are asked by qualitative research differ from those of experimental research. Qualitative research is much less interested in the cause and effect of behavior than is research based on experimentation. Instead, qualitative research is interested in how individuals understand themselves and make meaning out of their lives and world. (White & McBurney, 2013)

Qualitative research includes an "array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world." Qualitative techniques  are used at both the data collection and data analysis stages of a research project. At the data collection stage, the array of techniques includes focus groups, individual depth interviews (IDIs), case studies, ethnography, grounded theory, action research and observation. During analysis, the qualitative researcher uses content analysis of written or recorded materials drawn from personal expressions by participants, behavioral observations, and debriefing of observers, as well as the study of artifacts and trace evidence from the physical environment. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

Qualitative research aims to achieve an in-depth understanding of a situation, whether it explains why a person entering a Kroger grocery store proceeds down each aisle in turn or heads for the rear of the store and chooses only alternate aisles thereafter or explains why some advertisements make us laugh and contribute to our commitment to a brand while others generate outrage and boycotts. Judith Langer, a noted qualitative researcher, indicates that qualitative research is ideal if you want to extract feelings, emotions, motivations, perceptions, consumer "language,"  or self-described behavior. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

 

Qualitative research draws data from a variety of sources, including:

 

1. People (individuals or groups).
2. Organizations or institutions.
3. Texts (published, including virtual ones).
4. Settings and environments (visual/sensory and virtual material).
5. Objects, artifacts, media products (textual/visual/sensory and virtual material).
6. Events and happenings (textual/visual/sensory and virtual material).

(Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

 

Qualitative research methodologies have roots in a variety of disciplines: anthropology, sociology, psychology, linguistics, communication, economics and semiotics. Historically, qualitative methodologies have been available much longer - some as early as the 19th century - than the quantitative tools marketers rely on so heavily. Possibly because of their origins, qualitative  methods don't enjoy the unqualified endorsement of upper management. Many senior managers maintain that qualitative data are too subjective and susceptible to human error and bias in data collection and interpretation. They believe such research provides an unstable foundation for expensive and critical business decisions. The fact that results cannot be generalized from a qualitative study to a larger population is considered a fundamental weakness. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

 

Increasingly, however, managers are returning to these techniques as quantitative techniques fall short of providing the insights needed to make those ever-more-expensive business decisions. Managers deal with the issue of trustworthiness of qualitative data through exacting methodology:

 

• Carefully using literature searches to build probing questions.
• Thoroughly justifying the methodology or combination of methodologies chosen.
• Executing the chosen methodology in its natural setting (field study) rather than a highly controlled setting (laboratory).
• Choosing sample participants for relevance to the breadth of the issue rather than how well they represent the target population.
• Developing and including questions that reveal the exceptions to a rule or theory.
• Carefully structuring the data analysis.
• Comparing data across multiple sources and different contexts.
• Conducting peer-researcher debriefing on results for added clarity, additional insights and reduced bias.

            (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

 

The purpose of qualitative research is based on "researcher immersion in the phenomenon to be studied, gathering data which provide a detailed description of events, situations and interaction between people and things, thus providing depth and detail." Qualitative research - sometimes labeled  interpretive research because it seeks to develop understanding through detailed description - often builds theory but rarely tests it. Both the researcher and research sponsor have more significant involvement in collecting and interpreting qualitative data. The researcher may serve as a participant or catalyst, as a participant observer, or as a group interview moderator. The research sponsor may observe, influence interview questions, and add interpretations and insights during the process. Since researchers are immersed in the participant's world, any knowledge they gain can be used to adjust the data extracted from the next participant. Qualitative data are all about texts. Detailed descriptions of events, situations, and interactions, either verbal or visual, constitute the data. Data may be contained within transcriptions of interviews or video focus groups, as well as notes taken during those interactions. But by definition they generate reams of words that need to be coded and analyzed by humans for meaning. While computer software is increasingly used for the coding process in qualitative research, at the heart of the qualitative process is the researcher - and his or her experience - framing and interpreting the data. Qualitative studies with their smaller sample sizes offer an opportunity for faster turnaround of findings and may be especially useful to support a low-risk decision that must be made quickly. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

 

Some appropriate uses for qualitative research:

 

1. Job Analysis

2. Advertising Concept Development

3. Productivity Enhancements

4. New Product Development

5. Benefits Management

6. Retail Design

7. Process Understanding

8. Market Segmentation

9. Union Representation

10. Sales Analysis

 

(Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

 

The qualitative research process:

 

1.      Clarifying the Research Question

            1.1.  Discover the Management Dilemma (Exploration)

            1.2.  Define the Management Question (Exploration)

      1.3.  Define the Research Question(s)

      1.4.  Refine the Research Question(s)

2.   Research Proposal

3.   Research Design Strategy (type, purpose, time frame, scope, environment)

      3.1.  Data Collection Design

      3.2.  Sample Size & Recruiting Plan (Pretasking) 

      3.3.  Discussion Guide Development & Pretesting

4.   Data Collection & Preparation

5.   Debriefing of Moderators, Observers, & Participants

6.   Insight Development & Interpretation of  Data

7.   Research Reporting

8.   Management Decision

 

      (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

 

The researcher chooses a qualitative methodology based on the project's purpose; its schedule, its budget, the issues or topics being studied, the types of participants needed and the researcher's skill, personality and preferences. Sampling is the process of selecting some elements from a population to represent that population. One general sampling guideline exists for qualitative research: Keep sampling as long as your breadth and depth of knowledge of the issue under study are expanding; stop when you gain no new knowledge or insights. Sample sizes for qualitative research vary by technique but are usually small. The interview is the primary data collection technique for gathering data in qualitative methodologies. Interviews vary based on the number of people involved during the interview, the level of structure, the proximity of the interviewer to the participant, and the number of interviews conducted during the research. An interview can be conducted individually (individual depth interview or IDI) or in groups (e.g., focus groups). Interviewing requires a trained interviewer (called a moderator for group interviews) or the skills gained from experience. The interviewer makes respondents comfortable, probing for details, remaining neutral while encouraging the participant to talk openly, listening carefully, and extracting insights from detailed descriptive dialogue. the interviewer is responsible to generate the interview or discussion guide, the list of topics to be discussed and the questions to be asked and in what order. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face, with the obvious benefit of being able to observe and record nonverbal as well as verbal behavior. Interviews can also be conducted by phone or online. (Cooper & Schindler, 2014)

 

Another source of information that can be invaluable to qualitative researchers is analysis of documents. Such documents might include official records, letters, newspaper accounts, diaries, and reports, as well as the published data used in a review of literature. In his study of technology teachers in training, Hansen (1995) analyzed journal entries and memos written by participants, in addition to interviews. Hoepfl (1994), in her study of closure of technology teacher education programs, used newspaper reports, university policy documents, and department self-evaluation data, where available, to supplement data gained through interviews. (Hoepfl, 1997)    

 

Bogdan and Biklen define qualitative data analysis as "working with data, organizing it, breaking it into manageable units, synthesizing it, searching for patterns, discovering what is important and what is to be learned, and deciding what you will tell others" (1982, p. 145). Qualitative researchers tend to use inductive analysis of data, meaning that the critical themes emerge out of the data (Patton, 1990). Qualitative analysis requires some creativity, for the challenge is to place the raw data into logical, meaningful categories; to examine them in a holistic fashion; and to find a way to communicate this interpretation to others. (Hoepfl, 1997)    

 

Analysis begins with identification of the themes emerging from the raw data, a process sometimes referred to as "open coding" (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). During open coding, the researcher must identify and tentatively name the conceptual categories into which the phenomena observed will be grouped. The goal is to create descriptive, multi-dimensional categories which form a preliminary framework for analysis. Words, phrases or events that appear to be similar can be grouped into the same category. These categories may be gradually modified or replaced during the subsequent stages of analysis that follow. (Hoepfl, 1997)    

As the raw data are broken down into manageable chunks, the researcher must also develop an "audit trail"-that is, a scheme for identifying these data chunks according to their speaker and the context. The particular identifiers developed may or may not be used in the research report. Qualititative research reports are characterized by the use of "voice" in the text; that is, participant quotes that illustrate the themes being described. (Hoepfl, 1997)    

 

The next stage of analysis involves re-examination of the categories identified to determine how they are linked, a complex process sometimes called "axial coding" (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). The discrete categories identified in open coding are compared and combined in new ways as the researcher begins to assemble the "big picture." The purpose of coding is to not only describe but, more importantly, to acquire new understanding of a phenomenon of interest. Therefore, causal events contributing to the phenomenon; descriptive details of the phenomenon itself; and the ramifications of the phenomenon under study must all be identified and explored. During axial coding the researcher is responsible for building a conceptual model and for determining whether sufficient data exists to support that interpretation. (Hoepfl, 1997)    

 

Finally, the researcher must translate the conceptual model into the story line that will be read by others. Ideally, the research report will be a rich, tightly woven account that "closely approximates the reality it represents" (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 57). Many of the concerns surrounding the presentation of qualitative research reports are discussed in the section "Judging Qualitative Research" which follows. Additional data collection may occur at any point if the researcher uncovers gaps in the data. In fact, informal analysis begins with data collection, and can and should guide subsequent data collection. (Hoepfl, 1997)    

   

 

References

Cooper, Donald R. & Schindler, Pamela S. (2014) Business Research Methods (12th ed). New     York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Hoepfl, Marie C. (Fall 1997). Choosing Qualitative Research: A Primer for Technology     Education Researchers, Journal of Technology Education (Volume 9, Number 1).

             Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/v9n1/hoepfl.html

White, Theresa L. & McBurney, Donald H. (2013). Research Methods (9th ed.). Belmont,            California: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

 

A500.5.3.RB_RutbellGreg - Blog - Critical Thinking About Critical Thinking

Take some time to reflect on the current state of your critical thinking competencies. Consider your thinking processes when you started the course. Have they changed at all? Have you been able to internalize any of the techniques and concepts you have learned? What will it take to make lasting, positive changes in the way you think? I will summarize what I have learned and applied in my personal and professional life and will also identify what I need to focus on to improve (gap analysis).    

 

 

Critical thinking includes three characteristics: reflection, judgment and improvement.

 

Reflection from self, others and experience for example (education, family, personal life and professional jobs) enhances the thinking process. According to Robert Ennis, "Critical thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do." Examples of reflection include a diary, journal, enjoying a cup of coffee at sunrise and sunset thinking about daily goals and learning experiences from the day. 

 

Judgment is important to reach quality and the correct right decisions. According to Matthew Lipman, "Critical thinking is skillful, responsible thinking that is conducive to good judgment because it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting." I like this because good sound judgment is required for professional and personal success. 

 

Continuous improvement, professional development and self-improvement are required to build a better you. According to Richard Paul, "Critical thinking is thinking about your thinking, while you're thinking, in order to make your thinking better." If you are not getting better and improving, you will not be successful on the job and in life.

 

 

Critical thinking is a meta-thinking skill (Lau, 2011). It requires thinking about thinking. I have to reflect and make a reasonable and conscious effort to learn them and apply them in my daily life. This is hard to do because it requires passion, commitment and a long period of training. Like anything else in life in order to improve my critical thinking skills I have to think critically. Just like exercise or lack of such as walking and swimming which improves the efficiency of all muscles in the body; likewise not using those muscles causes them to deteriorate and becomes less efficient. The mastery of critical thinking is similar to the mastery of other skills such as sports, music, and engineering. The four areas and components that I will focus on to improve my critical thinking skills are: 1. Theory 2. Practice 3. Personal (including Attitude) 4. Mentoring.      

 

Theory   

 

Critical thinking is important for us to function, interact with others and solve problems in our lives. The basics of critical thinking and logic can be learned in a classroom or from a book. I can improve my mental prowess and critical thinking skills by regularly engaging my mind in reading books and formal and structured classroom learning activities such as the MSLD at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. The benefits of reading are vast and incredible. Reading improves memory by requiring the reader to remember plot, event, setting, and character details. It improves creativity by requiring the reader to imagine many of the details for his or herself. It also increases your vocabulary and ability to focus. All of these things add up to making you into a more efficient thinker so I have enrolled at ERAU in the MSLD and have a library card. So yes dive in and do it. (Lau, 2011)          

 

Practice   

Just knowing the principles that distinguish good and bad reasoning is not enough. I might study in the classroom about how to swim, and learn about the basic theory, such as the fact that one should not breathe under water. But unless I can apply such theoretical knowledge through constant practice, I might not actually be able to swim.

Similarly, to be good at critical thinking skills it is necessary to internalize the theoretical principles so that I can actually apply them in daily life. There are at least two ways. One is to do lots of good-quality exercises. Exercises include not just exercises in classrooms and tutorials. They also include exercises in the form of discussion and debates with other people in our daily life. The other method is to think more deeply about the principles that we have acquired. In the human mind, memory and understanding are acquired through making connections between ideas.

I can improve my mental prowess and critical thinking skills by regularly engaging my mind in my Industrial Engineering profession at Boeing, in strategy games, solving puzzles or difficult questions, and engaging in activities that employ strategy. In my profession, I can engage in critical thinking activities such as root cause analysis, value stream mapping, and process mapping. Strategy games include involving two or more players like Chess. This way the players must attempt to think like their opponent(s) through reaction and adaptation in order to win. One of the most amazing feats of the human brain is its capacity to create systems absorbing familiar types of information with ease. Sudoku is a purely logical, systematic exercise for the brain. It causes one to program their brain to recognize a massive array of possibilities with the numbers 1-9 in a 9x9 little square -- this game can really flex your pure cold intellect. Crossword solving shares many of the benefits that reading does such as creativity, memory, and vocabulary. But it also causes the solver to think in a connective way forcing him or her to pave neurological in their brain that may not have existed prior to then. The result is a more efficient brain and improved critical thinking capacity. (Lau, 2011)            

Personal

Personal includes attitude, diet, health, and well being. Good critical thinking skills require not just knowledge and practice. Persistent practice can bring about improvements only if one has the right kind of passion, drive, motivation and attitude. What is attitude? It is me! And it is a Yes attitude! How I feel when I wake up in the morning, when I look in the mirror, during the day, how I feel about my life, job and company. To improve my thinking I must recognize that the importance of reflecting on the reasons for belief and action. I must also be willing to engage in debate, to make mistakes, to break old habits (paradigms), and to deal with linguistic complexities and abstract concepts. Diet and exercise are important because they feed the body and mind. (Lau, 2011)  

I can also learn and apply the "9 Strategies" (The Critical Thinking Community) including:

1.      Use "Wasted" Time

2.      A Problem A Day

3.      Internalize Intellectual Standards

4.      Keep An Intellectual Journal

5.      Reshape My Character

6.      Deal with My Egocentrism

7.      Redefine the Way I See Things

8.      Get in touch with my emotions

9.      Analyze group influences on my life

(The Critical Thinking Community)

Mentoring

A mentor can be my coach and guide and we can share lifelong learning and personal experiences including what worked, what didn't, things my mentor and  I would do differently and a recommended action plan and strategy. What are the lessons learned from my mentor and myself? How can I apply this to improve my critical thinking? This includes relationship building with a bond of friendship, trust and understanding.

 

 

How do I define critical thinking? Critical thinking is a skill and process of deciding whether an assertion is true, false or partially true or false. 

 

In my current thinking, what is most important to me? What is most important to my manager and company? I am currently an Industrial Engineer at Boeing Commercial Airplanes 737 Program in Seattle, Washington. I have two important goals and objectives in my position, roles and responsibilities: 1. provide value to my company 2. servant leadership and help others. I was hired and am paid for my knowledge, skills, abilities, creativity and innovation to enhance the 737 Program Final Assembly to develop, implement and improve systems, processes, methods and improvements. The business result of this is to build the world's most advanced manufacturing, assembly and production system. The 737 Program is regarded in the aerospace industry as the world's most advanced and incredible assembly line. I am also a servant leader and help others at work regardless of title and position. My philosophy of life (and business) is that we are here to serve others. Servant leadership is both a leadership philosophy and set of leadership practices. According to Robert Greenleaf in "The Servant Leader" "The servant-leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead" (Greenleaf, 2002). Robert Greenleaf recognized that organizations as well as individuals could be servant-leaders. Indeed, he had great faith that servant-leader organizations could change the world. This is my thesis: I help everyone at work who asks for my help and assistance regardless of title and position. (Greenleaf, 2002)

 

"There is no one ‘correct' way; you must decide what is right for you, and develop your own views. To do that, however, you need to do some action research; the 'meaning' it has for you emerges as you do the research and explain what you are doing and why you are doing it (McNiff, 2002)."

 

As I was reading and reflecting through Jean McNiff Action research document, one name and standard problem solving and improvement process (and very successful process too) that I have been using for my career came to mind: W. Edward Deming was an American statistician, professor, author, lecturer and consultant and was known as the "high prophet and father of quality" (Orsini, 2013). Dr. Deming's plan-do-study-act (PDSA) Cycle is a flow diagram for learning and life. The first step is plan: ideas are in people's heads about improvement or innovation, new method or new process. Those ideas go down on paper and become plans. Ideas lead to a plan or test. Comparison and experiment. Step two: do it carry out the test or experiment on a small scale. Step three: study the results. How do they compare with goals and expectations? If something went wrong does something need to change? Step four: Act. Adopt a change or abandon it or run through the cycle again possibly under different conditions and maybe make some changes and adjustments. (Orsini, 2013).

 

The main components for action research (no matter which process you use) are: continuous improvement, ideas, reflection, experimentation, results and lifelong learning and most importantly great groups and teams with facilitation. I have had a great and successful career from integrating these.

 

 

According to Toastmasters International, intellectual perseverance is defined as "the disposition to work one's way through intellectual complexities despite the frustration inherent in the task. Some intellectual problems are complex and cannot be easily solved. One has intellectual perseverance when one does not give up in the face of intellectual complexity or frustration. The intellectually perseverant person displays firm adherence to rational principles despite the irrational opposition of others, and has a realistic sense of the need to struggle with confusion and unsettled questions over an extended time to achieve understanding or insight". The opposite of intellectual perseverance is intellectual laziness which is defined as "the tendency to give up quickly when faced with an intellectually challenging task". Physical perseverance (the human body) is different from intellectual perseverance (the mind thinking process). For example, sports emphasize "no pain, no gain" when using physical perseverance. (Intellectual Perseverance: Working Through Complexity and Frustration).                   

Intellectual Humility

Intellectual humility is awareness of the limits of my knowledge including egocentrism which is likely to function self-deceptively. This includes awareness of biases, prejudices, limitations of viewpoint, and ignorance. This does not imply weakness or submissiveness. Not having an awareness of this is intellectual arrogance and people who are often fall victim to their own bias and prejudice and claim to know more than they actually know. Intellectual humility will help be a fair-minded thinker along with knowledge of my ignorance can improve my thinking in several ways by recognizing prejudices, false beliefs and habits of mind that lead to flawed learning. 

Intellectual Courage

Intellectual courage is having an awareness of the need to face and fairly address ideas, beliefs and viewpoints which I have strong negative emotions and to which I have not given a fair hearing. For example, consider the following ideas: being conservative, believing in God, believing in capitalism, disbelieving in abortion, believing in capital punishment, I am a Christian, etc. No matter what side I am on, I often say, I am a "insert belief." I define who I am in relation to an emotional commitment to a belief and will likely experience inner fear when that idea or belief is questioned. I need intellectual courage to overcome self-created inner fear (linking my identity to a specific set of beliefs and overcome the fear of rejection by others because they hold certain beliefs and are likely to reject me if I challenge those beliefs.      

Intellectual Empathy

Intellectual empathy is awareness of the need to put yourself  in the place of others including their ideas, viewpoints and reasoning in order to understand them and reason  from ideas other than my own. How can I be fair to the thinking of others if I have not learned to put myself in their intellectual position? Different contexts and situations are needed to learn and understand.        

Intellectual Integrity 

Intellectual integrity (also known as character) is the recognition of the need to be true to your own thinking and to hold yourself accountable to the same standards one expects others to accomplish. When I have intellectual integrity, my beliefs and actions are consistent. We practice what we preach, for example. We don't say one thing and do another. I cannot be fair to others if I am justified in thinking and acting in contradictory ways. The opposite of  intellectual integrity is intellectual hypocrisy. Hypocrisy is a form of injustice. All humans sometimes fail to act with intellectual integrity. When we do, we reveal a lack of fair-mindedness on our part.

Faith In Reason

Faith in reason is based on the belief of giving the freest play to reason. Reason encourages people to come to their own conclusions, analysis and recommendations. It is the faith that with proper coaching and mentoring, people can think for themselves and develop viewpoints, draw conclusions, and develop clear, accurate, relevant and logical thought processes. They can persuade others by using reason with evidence. In the place of faith in reason, people can have uncritical or "blind" faith including: 1. faith in charismatic leaders (Hitler for example who manipulated and excited Germany to support genocide of an entire religious group), 2. faith in institutional authorities (employers, police, judges, priests, evangelical preachers, etc), 3. faith in some social group (business community, church, political party, etc), etc..  

Fairmindedness

To be fair-minded is to treat every assertion applicable for a situation with an open mind and attitude in an unbiased and unprejudiced way. We usually prejudge the views of others and put them in either agrees or disagrees categories. Being aware of the importance and need to treat all viewpoints alike without reference to one's own feelings or vested interests of friends, community, company, groups etc is the first step to fairmindedness.

 

Standards of Critical Thinking:

Clearness

Clarity or clearness is the gateway standard because if a statement is unclear and vague, we cannot determine if it is accurate and relevant. In addition, we cannot say anything about it because we don't know what it is saying. For example, the question "What's wrong with the education system in America?" is unclear and vague. A better question would be "What can educators do to ensure that students learn the skills and abilities which help them function successfully on the job and in their daily decision-making?" This statement is clear and understandable. 

Accuracy 

Is this true? How can we find out it if this is true? There is a saying about computers: "Garbage in, garbage out." Simply stated, this means that if you put bad information into a computer, bad information will is what you will get out of it. The same applies to human thinking. No matter how intelligent and brilliant you are, you will make bad decisions if your decisions are based on false information. Critical thinkers don't only value the truth; they have a passion for accurate data and information. In the spirit of Socrates' famous statement that the unexamined life is not worth living, they never stop learning, growing and inquiring.

Importance, Relevance

How is this connected to the issue? A statement can be clear, accurate, and precise, but not relevant to the question at issue. For example, students usually think that the amount of time they put into a course should be used to improve their grade in the course. Unfortunately, this is not always the case because the "effort" does not measure the quality of student learning and when this is applicable effort is irrelevant to their appropriate grade.      

Sufficiency

Has the issue been reasoned out sufficiently? Have I reasoned the issue out enough to decide the issue reasonably? Critical thinking about an issue is sufficient when it has been reasoned out thoroughly enough for the purpose at hand, when it is adequate for what is needed and when account of all necessary factors is complete.

Depth 

Are you taking into account the complexities and problems in the question? A statement can be clear, accurate, precise, and relevant, but superficial (lacking depth). For example, the statement "Just say no" which is often used to discourage children and teenagers from using drugs, is clear, accurate, precise and relevant. However, it lacks depth because it treats a very complex issue, the pervasive problem of drug use among young people, superficially. It does not deal with the complexities of the issue.

Breadth

Do we need to consider another point of view? Is there another way to look at this issue? A line of reasoning may be clear, accurate, precise, relevant, and deep, but lack breadth (only recognizes the insights of one side of the issue).      

Precision    

Everyone recognizes the importance of precision in specialized fields including: medicine, mathematics, architecture, and engineering. Critical thinkers also understand the importance of precise thinking in daily life. They understand that to cut through the confusions and uncertainties that surround many everyday problems and issues, it is necessary to insist on precise answers to precise questions: What exactly is the problem? What are the alternatives? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative? Only when we seek such precision are we critical thinkers.

Logic

Does this really make sense? when we think, we bring a variety of thoughts together into some order. When the combination of thoughts are mutually supporting and make sense in combination, the thinking is "logical." When the combination is not mutually supporting, is contradictory in some sense or does not "make sense," the combination is not logical.

Fairness

Do I have a vested interest in this issue? Am I sympathetically representing the viewpoints of others? Human thinking is often biased in the direction of the thinker - in what are the perceived interests of the thinker. Humans do not naturally consider the rights and needs of others on the same level with their own rights and needs. We therefore must actively work to make sure we are applying the intellectual standard of fairness to our thinking especially since we naturally see ourselves as fair even when we are unfair, this can be very difficult.

On the Internet, "anything goes" that is "anyone" can post "anything" at "any time" for any reason" they want on a Web site with no review, approval or screening process including no standard process of identifying subjects and cross-references. This is both a strength and weakness of the Internet because it is either freedom or chaos depending on the point of view and shows the importance to pay close attention when doing research on-line. There are many solid academic resources available on the Net including journals and sites from universities and scholarly, scientific, business and research organizations. The Hunt Library includes one such academic resource. Using materials from those sources is not a problem. It is similar to going to the Library except it's on-line. It's the other stuff on the Internet I need to be cautious about and need to use several guidelines and critical-thinking standards:

1. Don't use only Net resources. Use a combination of both Internet and Hunt Library resources. Cross reference information from the Net against information from the Library and is a good way to ensure the Net material is reliable and authoritative. Using a combination of both Internet and Library resources adds to the quality and diversity of research. It can also identify additional ideas and input that were not originally identified at the start.  

2. Know the subject directories and search engines. There are several quality peer reviewed subject directories with links selected by subject experts including INFOMINE and Academic Info. These are outstanding places to start Internet research. Yahoo and Google and other search engines differ in how they work, how much of the Net they search and the kind of results they produce. Spending some time learning each search engine and how best to use it can help in research. Each search engine will find different things, it's a good idea to use more than one search engine.

3. Authority. There are several questions to ask to ask and verify about the author and authority. Who is the author? Is the author's name and qualifications given? Has the author written additional topics and subject matter areas?

4. Affiliation. There are several questions to ask about affiliation. Who or what organization is the sponsor of the Web site? Is the author affiliated with a reputable organization such as business, industry, university, government, non-profit, etc.? Does the information reflect the views of the organization or only the author?                                

 

5. Audience. There are several questions to ask and verify about audience. Who is the intended audience? What is the audience level the Web site is designed for? For example, don't use sites intended for high school students or sites that are too advanced and technical for the intended application.   

 

6. Currency. There are several questions to ask and verify about currency. Is the Web site current and dated? Are the dates of the most recent updates given? Internet resources should be up to date because getting the most recent information is the reason for using the Internet for research. Are all links and updated and operational? 

 

7. Content Reliability. There are several questions to ask and verify about reliability. Is the material on the Internet reliable and accurate? Is the information fact and not opinion? Is the information clearly stated? Is the research valid? Does the material have substance and depth? Is the author's language free from emotion and bias? Is the site free of grammatical and spelling errors? Are additional resources identified to complement or support the material on the Web site?

 

(MacDonald, Research Using the Internet)

 

There are additional critical-thinking standards:

1. Accuracy. Is this true? How can we find out it if this is true? There is a saying about computers: "Garbage in, garbage out." Simply stated, this means that if you put bad information into a computer, bad information will is what you will get out of it. The same applies to human thinking. No matter how intelligent and brilliant you are, you will make bad decisions if your decisions are based on false information. Critical thinkers don't only value the truth; they have a passion for accurate data and information. In the spirit of Socrates' famous statement that the unexamined life is not worth living, they never stop learning, growing and inquiring.

2. Precision. Everyone recognizes the importance of precision in specialized fields including: medicine, mathematics, architecture, and engineering. Critical thinkers also understand the importance of precise thinking in daily life. They understand that to cut through the confusions and uncertainties that surround many everyday problems and issues, it is necessary to insist on precise answers to precise questions: What exactly is the problem? What are the alternatives? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative? Only when we seek such precision are we critical thinkers.

3. Logic. Does this really make sense? When we think, we bring a variety of thoughts together into some order. When the combination of thoughts are mutually supporting and make sense in combination, the thinking is "logical." When the combination is not mutually supporting, is contradictory in some sense or does not "make sense," the combination is not logical.

 

The foundation and pillars of Total Quality Management (TQM) and continuous improvement go back to a former Bell Telephone employee named Walter Shewhart. Dr Shewhart was an American physicist, engineer, and statistician and was sometimes known as the father of statistical quality control and the Shewhart cycle. He believed that lack of information greatly hampered the efforts of control and management processes in a production environment. One of W. Edwards Deming's teachers, he preached the importance of creating scientific and efficient and management processes to create profitable business cases for both businesses and consumers economical decisions, promoting the utilization of his own creation - the SPC control chart and the Shewhart Cycle Learning and Improvement Cycle: Plan, Do, Check and Act (Figure 1). W. Edwards Deming said of him "As a statistician, he was like so many of the rest of us, self-taught, on a good background of physics and mathematics (Orsini, 2013)." (Orsini, 2013).

W. Edwards Deming was an American statistician, professor, author, lecturer and consultant and was known as the "high prophet and father of quality" (Orsini, 2013). Dr. Deming's plan-do-study-act (PDSA) Cycle (Figure 2) is a flow diagram for learning and life. The first step is plan: ideas are in people's heads about improvement or innovation, new method or new process. Those ideas go down on paper and become plans. Ideas lead to a plan or test. Comparison and experiment. Step two: do it carry out the test or experiment on a small scale. Step three: study the results. How do they compare with goals and expectations? If something went wrong does something need to change? Step four: Act. Adopt a change or abandon it or run through the cycle again possibly under different conditions and maybe make some changes and adjustments. (Orsini, 2013).

What is my definition of a system of thinking? Systems thinking is the process of understanding how things, also known as systems, work together, integrate with each other and influence each other within a whole. For example, take a car and truck. What are the systems? There is the engine, drive/power train system including transmission with drive shaft and axles, fuel system, heater and air conditioning system, suspension system with shock absorbers and springs, brake system, battery with electrical charging system and power steering system. These systems work together, are integrated and influence (usually with computer control) each other and enable us to drive. If a problem or issue surfaces or lack of preventive maintenance, what happens? The "Check Engine" emergency light goes on illuminating a red, yellow or orange color sometimes with an audio alarm or beeper. In organizations, systems include people, structures and processes that are integrated and work together to make the organization successful (or unsuccessful). 

 

A general impression is that a field consists essentially of a body of information. For example, in my profession of an Industrial Engineer, the body of knowledge or information (Field or Discipline) includes: time and motion studies, work measurement analysis, process and methods improvements, root cause analysis, operating plans, project management, safety and lean manufacturing. I do not simply process information. I know how to use the concepts and synthesize information including practical hand on application. I know how to think about the Industrial Engineering field and how to think within the field.

 

Everyone has experienced learning parts of a subject, but with no idea how the parts are integrated and fit together. Understanding a whole is not the same as understanding the parts. It is understanding parts as they fit together with one another and form a coherent whole: a logic. In my Industrial Engineering example, the systems approach of integrating all the parts I identified is an effective and efficient production system for the Boeing 737 Program. A production system includes the process of how we build the airplane (tooling, personnel, engineering, etc). An analysis of this would include going through the (8) Elements of Thought with Intellectual Standards.     

 

Warren Bennis - Concepts

Bennis on Understanding the Basics:  

According to Bennis (1989), the basic ingredients of leadership are having a guiding vision, passion, self-knowledge, candor, maturity, trust, curiosity, and daring. Bennis goes on to say that these are ingredients for becoming a leader and not traits, hence, we are not born with them but must develop them over years.    

Bennis on Knowing Yourself:

In knowing yourself, Bennis (1989) outlines four lessons aimed at leaders. He tells us that we should be our own best teacher, we should accept responsibility, we can learn anything we want, and that true understanding comes from reflecting on our own experiences. Bennis (1989) mentions that we should really know ourselves and what we are capable of before we can lead others. In other words, knowing yourself gives you confidence to lead people.

Bennis on Knowing the World:

According to Bennis (1989), to become a leader we must know our world as well as we know ourselves. We know our world through learning. We do this learning through our experiences, our reading, our formalized instruction, our travels, our mentors and our own mistakes. But it's not just learning, it's about having a passion for learning; it's about losing yourself in the reading, education, travel, friends, and reflections.

Bennis on Operating on Instinct:

A leader is a person that knows himself, knows his world and relies on everything he’s learned to set a guiding vision. A leader uses prior knowledge to make difficult decisions based on “gut” feelings. Bennis (1989) calls this visions “inner voices,” which leaders learn to trust when making decisions based on limited data or information.

Bennis on Forging the Future:

According to Bennis (1989), leaders forge the future by managing the dream, embracing error, encouraging reflective backtalk and dissent, possessing optimism, providing hope and faith, develop understanding, possessing the touch, seeing the long view, understanding stakeholders, and creating strategic alliances. It's not as easy as it seems. Leaders must be able to manage internal and external change while leading the organization to a shared future.

Warren Bennis - Conclusions/Interpretations

Bennis (1989) theory can be summed up into one sentence. A great leader must first know himself and his world, then and only then can they lead through a shared set of values and objectives with the passion and determination of turning the shared vision into a reality. In his 1989 book titled On Becoming a Leader, Warren Bennis outlined the principles and implementation plan for becoming a leader. He sums up his book with three top recommendations for leaders. They include the status quo is unacceptable, recruiting and retaining smart people leads to competitive advantage, and followers need direction, trust and hope (Bennis, 1989).       

 

 

 

 

References

Bennis, Warren (1989). On Becoming a Leader. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books Group.  

Critical Thinking in Everyday Life: 9 Strategies (The Critical Thinking Community). Retrieved

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http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/critical-thinking-in-everyday-life-9-strategies/512

Green, Penelope. (2010, March 17). An Expert on Choice Chooses. New York Times. Retrieved

            from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/18/garden/18choice.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0

Greenleaf, Robert K. (2002). Servant Leadership - A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate          Power & Greatness. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press.

Intellectual Perseverance: Working Through Complexity and Frustration. Toastmasters      International. Retrieved from    http://westsidetoastmasters.com/resources/thinking_tools/ch03lev1sec7.html.

Lau, Joe (2011). An Introduction to Critical Thinking and Creativity - Think More, Think Better (1st ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley, John & Sons.

MacDonald, W. Brock. Research Using the Internet (University of Toronto). Retrieved from             http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/reading-and-researching/research-using-internet.

McNiff, Jean. (2002). Action research for professional development: Concise advice for

            new action researchers (3rd ed.). Retrieved from jeanmcniff.com:    http://www.jeanmcniff.com/ar-booklet.asp

Nosich, Gerald M. (2012). Learning To Think Things Through - A Guide To Critical

            Thinking Across The Curriculum (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Orsini, Joyce Nilsson (2013 - The W. Edwards Deming Institute). The Essential Deming:

                Leadership Principles from the Father of Quality. New York: McGraw